ABSTRACT
Dust events occurring over water bodies are significant environmental phenomena. This study investigates dust events over the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman across three case studies during the spring, summer, and winter of 2025. The study employed satellite data, ground-based observations, synoptic analysis, and the outputs of the HYSPLIT and WRF-Chem models. Satellite products revealed intense dust plumes and significant AOD values over the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman in all three cases. Data from meteorological stations confirmed reduced visibility, particularly in Hormozgan Province. Synoptic analysis indicated distinct atmospheric systems across the different seasons. In the summer case study, surface maps showed the presence of a thermal low-pressure system and Shamal winds over Iraq, while the mid-troposphere exhibited a subtropical high-pressure system extending from northeastern Africa to western Iran. In the spring case study, the formation of a cold front—driven by a dynamic low-pressure system associated with a mid-tropospheric trough—was the primary cause of the dust. During winter, the presence of a dynamic low-pressure system and associated strong winds triggered dust events over the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman. HYSPLIT model results indicated that, in all three cases, the primary dust transport pathways originated from southern Iraq, northern and eastern Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the UAE, and southern Iran. The WRF-Chem model outputs also accurately predicted the spatiotemporal distribution of dust concentrations and prevailing wind patterns in the region, and revealed the influence of various sources on the occurrence of these dust events.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Dust storms are one of the most significant natural hazards in many countries around the world, particularly those located within the global dust belt. The Middle East, as a region situated in this dust belt, contains numerous active dust source regions. Fine dust particles emitted from these sources are subsequently transported to downwind areas, often over long distances. The Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, two large water bodies in the Middle East, are affected annually by surrounding dust sources. These marine regions are not only ecologically sensitive but also of great economic importance for fisheries, shipping, and oil transportation. The synoptic circulation patterns affecting the region, along with prevailing wind directions, cause dust storms to pass directly over these sensitive marine environments. Pollution resulting from the transport of fine dust particles from surrounding hotspots to the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman is a major environmental challenge. It has created negative impacts that could damage the biodiversity of these water bodies, even in the short term. According to recent studies, the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman regions are among the most polluted marine areas in the world. In this study, three widespread dust phenomena over the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman were investigated, representing the summer, spring, and winter seasons.

Methodology
Satellite data and surface observations from Iranian synoptic stations were used to detect dust masses and assess the severity of the studied storms. To examine the mechanisms responsible for these dust events in different seasons, a synoptic analysis was performed using NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data. The HYSPLIT trajectory model was employed to identify different dust sources in the region that affect the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman during the selected case studies. Finally, the WRF-Chem numerical model was run to evaluate its capability in forecasting dust storms over the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman.

Results and Discussion
Satellite true-color imagery revealed heavy dust masses covering a large part of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Sea of Oman during all three cases. Aerosol optical depth (AOD) values were significant over most of the study area. Horizontal visibility data from meteorological stations also confirmed a marked decrease in visibility, especially at stations in Hormozgan province during these dust events. Visibility reductions in some cases dropped below 500 meters, indicating severe dust storm conditions. The synoptic analysis indicated different systems in the three case studies. In the summer dust storm, a thermal low-pressure system and northwesterly winds (Shamal wind) over northern Iraq were observed. At mid-tropospheric levels, subtropical high-altitude ridges extended from northeastern Africa across to the Red Sea, Saudi Arabia, and western parts of Iran. During the spring case study, the presence of a dynamic low-pressure system and its associated cold front caused severe winds and dust emission from the surface. Accordingly, this spring dust storm was classified as a frontal dust event. Additionally, a deep trough was present over the region during this case. In the winter season case, severe winds around a dynamic low-pressure system led to the formation of a dust storm. Specifically, in the first case (summer), a negative pressure anomaly over southern areas was observed; in the second case (spring), a negative altitude anomaly in the trough position over northern Iraq; and in the third case (winter), a significant pressure decrease over the study area was noted. These distinct synoptic configurations highlight the seasonal variability in dust storm triggers over the region. The outputs of the HYSPLIT model showed that the main dust paths passed through southern Iraq, northern and eastern Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), as well as sources located in southern Iran during all case studies. Back-trajectory analysis confirmed that air parcels arriving over the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman originated primarily from these arid and semi-arid regions. The outputs of the WRF-Chem model correctly predicted the spatial and temporal distribution of high dust concentrations and the prevailing wind pattern in the region, highlighting the simultaneous role of different regional sources in the occurrence of these dust events.

Conclusion
The results indicated that there are different mechanisms causing dust storms over the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, as well as various dust sources surrounding these water bodies. Dust sources in Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the UAE, Oman, and Iran contributed to these severe storms in the study area. Studying the synoptic systems responsible for the emission and transport of dust particles to the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman in different seasons can lead to more accurate dust storm forecasts in the future. Furthermore, based on the findings, numerical models such as WRF-Chem can be used as reliable tools to forecast severe dust storms over the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman.

Funding
There is no funding support.

Authors’ Contribution
Authors contributed equally to the conceptualization and writing of the article. All of the authors approved thecontent of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work declaration of competing interest none.

Conflict of Interest
Authors declared no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments
We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper.